One of the topics that is being widely discussed today by Japanese as well as Americans is higher education. In fact, Japan's Ministry of Education according to the United States publication, The Chronicle of Higher Education received $15 billion from the central government in the 2000 fiscal year because of "unprecedented operating deficits incurred by universities." This situation has underscored the need to reform a system for financing and changing higher education that relies heavily on the Japanese taxpayer. The ministry has already put forward a plan to turn its 99 national universities into "special administrative entities" in 2003. The change would give the universities more independence in running their own affairs and encourage them to develop new areas including self-support.
One of the many areas that Japanese educators are studying thoroughly is speech education in the United States. What can they adopt from the U.S. system that could help them develop new speech areas and have more effective and efficient instruction in the ones they have? We know that the American system was based on Greek and English traditions and that Rhetoric, as part of English departments was the cornerstone of early American education. Many well known Americans were connected with speech training. For example, John Quincy Adams, second president of the United States held the First Chair of Rhetoric at Harvard University. Benjamin Franklin, the great American statesman broadened the concept of speech training to business and professional people as well as clergy. Gradually, speech training separated from Rhetoric and concentrated on "fullness of voice", "good lungs", "good health", "how to get your message across orally."
The teaching of speech handicapped took longer to develop as historically people with speech defects have been treated poorly; banished from primitive tribes, the brunt of jokes in plays, i.e. "Ichinotani Futaba Gunki" - The Battle of Ichinotani. The bunraku play where all the performers suddenly have speech problems: lisping, can't speak, can't hear so they don't have to bring a message to the lord.
1890 - 1920 was the transition period for United States speech education: the new profession of Speech Correction and Audiology developed; college speech departments blossomed by the hundreds; private speech colleges developed such as Emerson in Boston. In 1922, the University of Wisconsin granted the first Ph.D. in speech; and new land grant universities were founded in the mid-west where all citizens could now go to college, not just the elite. As one traveler said, "What a magnificent country, France has four universities, England two and the state of Ohio (U.S.A.) thirty-seven."
The big push in speech/language therapy was lead by neurologists, ear, nose and throat surgeons. Japan lead the way with the development of larynx operations. It was discovered that voice disorders can have organic causes: disease, injury, vocal abuse, or non-organic psychological stress related to voice dysfunction. Therapy usually consists of relaxation techniques, vocal modeling (following instructor) counseling, vocal hygiene and any other special treatment as needed. Some difficulties such as stammering (voice hesitation) requires a variety of different techniques. Speech therapists in America draw on other fields and work with doctors and rehabilitation centers, but it is a separate well-paying field working in the schools for simple problems and in speech centers for the more complex. Speech correction takes a great deal of time and patience. There is no miracle drug.
We know that communication is complex; it is always changing, can't be taken back, varies with cultures. That is the emphasis in speech training today, the importance of understanding each others cultures for good oral communication. For example, Japan is a more homogenous country then America. They can identify very well with each other, have a greater facility in interpersonal relations (between two or more people). They rely on the other person's sensitivities to get a meaning.
They pay attention not only to the meaning of words when they communicate, but to all other components: linguistic, non-linguistic, atmosphere, location, the social relations between communicators.
The Japanese have certain ties: love of nature, religion, the meaning of the changing seasons, life cycles, shared traditions. This can be illustrated in Japanese ads, i.e. a Nike ad in Japan shows a sneaker and says "Just do it." The Japanese know to buy. It is short and to the point. In America, they would need more specifics. A beauty shop in Japan has a picture of a woman and the words, "We Will, We Will, We Will," test was done on women: all Japanese women knew it meant that the shop cut hair, none of the American women had any idea what was being done. An example of a Japanese tradition is the money dish; this comes from feudal times where merchants were the lowest rung on the social ladder even though the samurai (warrior class) was indebted to them. You didn't want to touch money as it was dirty. Knowing this tradition and others can help Americans (and people of all nations) communicate better with the Japanese.
What can the Japanese apply to their education by looking at American speech work? First, would be the development of speech correction as a field of study. There is a need for therapists in schools and hospitals. Secondly, would be a change in the teaching of English - stress practice in logical progression. Instead of trying to say the exact word perfectly, listen to the sentence and reply to that: for example, if someone says, "I like my dog" - the answer should be, "What kind of a dog do you like?" - a logical progression - a speech approach. Some real critical thinking in oral presentations and debating, taking opposite sides and not getting mad at your opponent would also be excellent plus coming from American education. Public discussion has been the cornerstone of democracy. The more people learn to discuss mutual problems the better. Culture provides guidelines on how to interact within the system and speech education in America is now stressing the study of culture as a way to communicate better with each other.
Many scholars feel Japanese communication changes drastically depending on whether or not communicators belong to the same group. The cultural traits of empathy(omoiyari) and mutual dependence (amai) also steer the Japanese away from verbal interactions. Considerable value is placed on an individuals ability to empathetically determine the needs of another person. In interpersonal encounters the Japanese will rely on the other person's sensitivity to ascertain the desired meaning of the interaction. Many times the Japanese limited emotion in facial and voice tone and pitch are often adjusted to fit the speakers position of junior or senior. The most common Japanese activity the bow repeats and denotes hierarchical status. Culture provides a system of knowledge for dealing with the world. Cultures can be divided into individualism and collectivistic. Most scholars agree that the United States is an individualistic culture and Japan a collectivistic culture. Individual cultures like the United States promote self-realization. Each person is viewed as having a unique set of talents and potentials. Collectivistic society requires that individuals fit into a group.
An internationally respected person today needs to understand and appreciate their culture and that of others. Meanings are not transmitted alone; meanings are in people. Good communication reduces uncertainty and anxiety. All aspects and kinds of communication must be understood to be successful in the 21st century.
Part of a lecture given by Professor Frances Broderick, College of Mount Saint Vincent, New York City at Mie University, Perfecture of Tsu, June, 2001.
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well as these rooms there were video games and a 3D film which made you
experience what it was like outside a building during an earthquake.